18 U.S.C. § 1 — Untitled legal text

Page 8 TITLE 18—CRIMES AND CRIMINAL PROCEDURE [§ 1 Federal Law Enforcement, directed Commission to re- view and recommend action to Congress on Federal law enforcement priorities for 21st century, including Fed- eral law enforcement capability to investigate and deter adequately threat of terrorism facing United States, standards and procedures, degree of coordina- tion with international, State, and local law enforce- ment agencies, and other matters, provided for mem- bership and administration of Commission, staffing and support functions, and powers to hold hearings and ob- tain official data for purposes of carrying out its du- ties, required report to Congress and public of findings, conclusions, and recommendations not later than 2 years after quorum of Commission had been appointed, and provided for termination of Commission 30 days after submitting report. NATIONAL COMMISSION ON REFORM OF FEDERAL CRIMINAL LAWS Pub. L. 89–801, Nov. 8, 1966, 80 Stat. 1516, as amended by Pub. L. 91–39, July 8, 1969, 83 Stat. 44, provided for the establishment of the National Commission on Re- form of Federal Criminal Laws, its membership, duties, compensation of the members, the Director, and the staff of the Commission, established the Advisory Com- mittee on Reform of Federal Criminal Laws, required the Commission to submit interim reports to the Presi- dent and the Congress and to submit a final report within four years from Nov. 8, 1966, and further pro- vided that the Commission shall cease to exist sixty days after the submission of the final report. Executive Documents EX. ORD. NO. 11396. COORDINATION BY ATTORNEY GEN- ERAL OF FEDERAL LAW ENFORCEMENT AND CRIME PRE- VENTION PROGRAMS Ex. Ord. No. 11396, Feb. 7, 1968, 33 F.R. 2689, which re- lated to coordination By Attorney General of Federal law enforcement and crime prevention programs, was editorially reclassified and is set out as a note pre- ceding section 10101 of Title 34, Crime Control and Law Enforcement. EXECUTIVE ORDER NO. 11534 Ex. Ord. No. 11534, June 4, 1970, 35 F.R. 8865, which re- lated to the National Council on Organized Crime, was revoked by Ex. Ord. No. 12110, Dec. 28, 1978, 44 F.R. 1069, formerly set out as a note under section 1013 of Title 5, Government Organization and Employees. [§ 1. Repealed. Pub. L. 98–473, title II, § 218(a)(1), Oct. 12, 1984, 98 Stat. 2027] Section, acts June 25, 1948, ch. 645, 62 Stat. 684; Oct. 30, 1984, Pub. L. 98–596, § 8, 98 Stat. 3138, classified of- fenses as a felony, misdemeanor, or petty offense. Statutory Notes and Related Subsidiaries EFFECTIVE DATE OF REPEAL Repeal of section effective Nov. 1, 1987, and applicable only to offenses committed after the taking effect of such repeal, see section 235(a)(1) of Pub. L. 98–473, set out as an Effective Date note under section 3551 of this title. SHORT TITLE OF 2024 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 118–78, § 1, July 30, 2024, 138 Stat. 1512, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [enacting section 1352 of this title and amending section 201 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Foreign Extortion Prevention Technical Correc- tions Act’.’’ Pub. L. 118–77, § 1, July 30, 2024, 138 Stat. 1510, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [amending section 3663A of this title] may be cited as the ‘Victims’ Voices Outside and Inside the Courtroom Effectiveness Act’ or the ‘Vic- tims’ VOICES Act’.’’ Pub. L. 118–59, § 1, May 7, 2024, 138 Stat. 1014, provided that: ‘‘This Act [amending sections 2258A and 2258B of this title and enacting provisions set out as notes under sections 2258A and 2258B of this title] may be cited as the ‘Revising Existing Procedures On Report- ing via Technology Act’ or the ‘REPORT Act’.’’ Pub. L. 118–42, div. G, title III, § 302(a), Mar. 9, 2024, 138 Stat. 451, provided that: ‘‘This section [enacting provisions set out as a note under section 3551 of this title] may be cited as the ‘United States Parole Com- mission Additional Extension Act of 2024’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 2023 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 118–31, div. E, title LI, § 5102(a), Dec. 22, 2023, 137 Stat. 933, provided that: ‘‘This section [amending sections 2423 and 2427 of this title and enacting provi- sions set out as a note under section 2423 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Preventing Child Sex Abuse Act of 2023’.’’ Pub. L. 117–351, § 1, Jan. 5, 2023, 136 Stat. 6265, provided that: ‘‘This Act [amending section 2441 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Justice for Victims of War Crimes Act’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 2022 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 117–328, div. O, title VIII, § 801(a), Dec. 29, 2022, 136 Stat. 5232, provided that: ‘‘This section [enacting provisions set out as notes under section 3551 of this title] may be cited as the ‘United States Parole Com- mission Additional Extension Act of 2022’.’’ Pub. L. 117–272, § 1, Dec. 27, 2022, 136 Stat. 4181, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [amending section 879 of this title] may be cited as the ‘21st Century President Act’.’’ Pub. L. 117–264, div. B, title I, § 103(a), Dec. 23, 2022, 136 Stat. 4168, provided that: This section [enacting provi- sions set out as notes under section 3551 of this title] may be cited as the ‘United States Parole Commission Further Additional Extension Act of 2022’.’’ Pub. L. 117–229, div. B, title I, § 103(a), Dec. 16, 2022, 136 Stat. 2309, which provided that section 103 of Pub. L. 117–229 could be cited as the ‘‘United States Parole Commission Further Extension Act of 2022’’, was ren- dered ineffective by Pub. L. 117–264, div. B, title I, § 103(d), Dec. 23, 2022, 136 Stat. 4168, set out as a note under section 3551 of this title. Pub. L. 117–180, div. C, title I, § 103(a), Sept. 30, 2022, 136 Stat. 2133, provided that: ‘‘This section [enacting provisions set out as a note under section 3551 of this title] may be cited as the ‘United States Parole Com- mission Extension Act of 2022’.’’ Pub. L. 117–176, § 1, Sept. 16, 2022, 136 Stat. 2108, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [amending section 2255 of this title and enacting provisions set out as a note under section 2255 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Elimi- nating Limits to Justice for Child Sex Abuse Victims Act of 2022’.’’ Pub. L. 117–159, § 3(a), June 25, 2022, 136 Stat. 1313, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [see Tables for classification] may be cited as the ‘Bipartisan Safer Communities Act’.’’ Pub. L. 117–107, § 1, Mar. 29, 2022, 136 Stat. 1125, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [amending section 249 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Emmett Till Antilynching Act’.’’ Pub. L. 117–103, div. W, title X, § 1001(a), Mar. 15, 2022, 136 Stat. 912, provided that: ‘‘This section [enacting section 4051 of this title, amending section 3621 of this title, and enacting provisions set out as a note under section 3621 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Ramona Brant Improvement of Conditions for Women in Fed- eral Custody Act’.’’ Pub. L. 117–103, div. W, title XI, § 1101(a), Mar. 15, 2022, 136 Stat. 919, provided that: ‘‘This section [enacting section 925B of this title and amending section 921 of this title] may be cited as the ‘NICS Denial Notifica- tion Act of 2022’.’’ Pub. L. 117–103, div. W, title XII, § 1201, Mar. 15, 2022, 136 Stat. 923, provided that: ‘‘This title [enacting sec- Page 9 TITLE 18—CRIMES AND CRIMINAL PROCEDURE [§ 1 tion 250 of this title and section 60106 of Title 34, Crime Control and Law Enforcement, amending sections 2242 to 2244 and 2246 of this title, and enacting provisions set out as notes under section 60106 of Title 34] may be cited as the ‘Closing the Law Enforcement Consent Loophole Act of 2022’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 2021 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 117–59, § 1, Nov. 18, 2021, 135 Stat. 1468, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [amending sections 111, 115, and 1114 of this title and enacting provisions set out as a note under section 1114 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Jaime Zapata and Victor Avila Federal Officers and Employees Protection Act’.’’ Pub. L. 116–309, § 1, Jan. 5, 2021, 134 Stat. 4922, provided that: ‘‘This Act [enacting section 41312 of Title 34, Crime Control and Law Enforcement, amending section 116 of this title, and enacting provisions set out as notes under section 116 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Strengthening the Opposition to Female Genital Muti- lation Act of 2020’ or the ‘STOP FGM Act of 2020’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 2020 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 116–260, div. O, title X, § 1001, Dec. 27, 2020, 134 Stat. 2155, provided that: ‘‘This title [repealing chapter 89 and sections 46, 511A, 707, 708, 711, 711a, 715, and 1921 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Clean Up the Code Act of 2019’.’’ Pub. L. 116–249, § 1, Dec. 22, 2020, 134 Stat. 1126, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [enacting section 2261B of this title and amending section 2261A of this title] may be cited as the ‘Combat Online Predators Act’.’’ Pub. L. 116–179, § 1, Oct. 20, 2020, 134 Stat. 855, provided that: ‘‘This Act [amending section 1030 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Defending the Integrity of Voting Systems Act’.’’ Pub. L. 116–159, div. D, title II, § 4201, Oct. 1, 2020, 134 Stat. 741, provided that: ‘‘This title [enacting provi- sions set out as a note under section 3551 of this title] may be cited as the ‘United States Parole Commission Extension Act of 2020’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 2019 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 116–72, § 1, Nov. 25, 2019, 133 Stat. 1151, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [amending section 48 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Preventing Animal Cruelty and Torture Act’ or the ‘PACT Act’.’’ Pub. L. 116–31, § 1, July 25, 2019, 133 Stat. 1034, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [amending section 175b of this title] may be cited as the ‘Effective Prosecution of Pos- session of Biological Toxins and Agents Act of 2019’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 2018 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 115–395, § 1, Dec. 21, 2018, 132 Stat. 5287, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [amending sections 2258A to 2258E of this title] may be cited as the ‘CyberTipline Mod- ernization Act of 2018’.’’ Pub. L. 115–392, § 1(a), Dec. 21, 2018, 132 Stat. 5250, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [enacting section 2429 of this title, section 645 of Title 6, Domestic Security, and sec- tion 20709a of Title 34, Crime Control and Law Enforce- ment, amending sections 521, 1583, 1587, 1591, 2423, 2426, 2516, and 3014 of this title, sections 187 and 473 of Title 6, sections 7103, 7105, and 7110 of Title 22, Foreign Rela- tions and Intercourse, section 524 of Title 28, Judiciary and Judicial Procedure, section 9705 of Title 31, Money and Finance, and sections 20304, 20708, 20711, and 41309 of Title 34, and enacting provisions set out as notes under sections 20701 and 20704 of Title 34] may be cited as the ‘Abolish Human Trafficking Act of 2017’.’’ Pub. L. 115–391, § 1(a), Dec. 21, 2018, 132 Stat. 5194, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [see Tables for classification] may be cited as the ‘First Step Act of 2018’.’’ Pub. L. 115–391, title II, § 201, Dec. 21, 2018, 132 Stat. 5216, provided that: ‘‘This title [enacting section 4050 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Lieutenant Osvaldo Albarati Correctional Officer Self-Protection Act of 2018’.’’ Pub. L. 115–299, § 1, Dec. 7, 2018, 132 Stat. 4383, provided that: ‘‘This Act [enacting sections 2259A and 2259B of this title, amending sections 1593, 2252A, 2256, 2259, 3509, and 3613 of this title and section 20101 of Title 34, Crime Control and Law Enforcement, and enacting provisions set out as a note under section 2259 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Amy, Vicky, and Andy Child Pornog- raphy Victim Assistance Act of 2018’.’’ Pub. L. 115–271, title VIII, § 8121, Oct. 24, 2018, 132 Stat. 4108, provided that: ‘‘This subtitle [subtitle J (§§ 8121, 8122) of title VIII of Pub. L. 115–271, enacting section 220 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Eliminating Kick- backs in Recovery Act of 2018’.’’ Pub. L. 115–253, § 1, Oct. 3, 2018, 132 Stat. 3183, provided that: ‘‘This Act [amending sections 2331, 2333 and 2334 of this title and enacting provisions set out as notes under sections 2331, 2332 and 2334 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Anti-Terrorism Clarification Act of 2018’.’’ Pub. L. 115–249, § 1, Sept. 28, 2018, 132 Stat. 3162, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [amending section 247 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Protecting Religiously Af- filiated Institutions Act of 2018’.’’ Pub. L. 115–164, § 1, Apr. 11, 2018, 132 Stat. 1253, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [enacting section 2421A of this title, amending sections 1591 and 1595 of this title and section 230 of Title 47, Telecommunications, and enact- ing provisions set out as notes under section 230 of Title 47] may be cited as the ‘Allow States and Victims to Fight Online Sex Trafficking Act of 2017’.’’ Pub. L. 115–141, div. V, § 101, Mar. 23, 2018, 132 Stat. 1213, provided that: ‘‘This division [enacting sections 2523 and 2713 of this title, amending sections 2511, 2520, 2702, 2703, 2707, 3121, and 3124 of this title, and enacting provisions set out as notes under sections 2520, 2523, and 2703 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Clarifying Lawful Overseas Use of Data Act’ or the ‘CLOUD Act’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 2016 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 114–316, § 1, Dec. 16, 2016, 130 Stat. 1593, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [enacting section 3273 of this title and provisions set out as a note under section 3273 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Promoting Travel, Com- merce, and National Security Act of 2016’.’’ Pub. L. 114–236, § 1, Oct. 7, 2016, 130 Stat. 966, provided that: ‘‘This Act [enacting chapter 238 of this title and sections 10603f and 14043g–1 of Title 42, The Public Health and Welfare, and amending section 10601 of Title 42] may be cited as the ‘Survivors’ Bill of Rights Act of 2016’.’’ Pub. L. 114–222, § 1, Sept. 28, 2016, 130 Stat. 852, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [enacting section 1605B of Title 28, Judiciary and Judicial Procedure, amending section 2333 of this title and section 1605 of Title 28, and enact- ing provisions set out as notes under section 2333 of this title and section 1605B of Title 28] may be cited as the ‘Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act’.’’ Pub. L. 114–154, § 1, May 16, 2016, 130 Stat. 387, provided that: ‘‘This Act [amending sections 2318 and 2320 of this title and section 959 of Title 21, Food and Drugs] may be cited as the ‘Transnational Drug Trafficking Act of 2015’.’’ Pub. L. 114–153, § 1, May 11, 2016, 130 Stat. 376, provided that: ‘‘This Act [amending sections 1832, 1833, 1835, 1836, 1838, 1839, and 1961 of this title and enacting provisions set out as notes under sections 1832 and 1833 of this title and section 620 of Title 28, Judiciary and Judicial Pro- cedure] may be cited as the ‘Defend Trade Secrets Act of 2016’.’’ Pub. L. 114–133, § 1, Mar. 9, 2016, 130 Stat. 296, provided that: ‘‘This Act [enacting section 4049 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Eric Williams Correctional Officer Pro- tection Act of 2015’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 2015 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 114–22, § 1(a), May 29, 2015, 129 Stat. 227, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [see Tables for classification] may be cited as the ‘Justice for Victims of Trafficking Act of 2015’.’’ Pub. L. 114–22, title I, § 118(a), May 29, 2015, 129 Stat. 247, provided that: ‘‘This section [amending section 1591 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Stop Advertising Vic- Page 10 TITLE 18—CRIMES AND CRIMINAL PROCEDURE [§ 1 tims of Exploitation Act of 2015’ or the ‘SAVE Act of 2015’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 2014 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 113–104, § 1, May 20, 2014, 128 Stat. 1156, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [amending section 117 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Kilah Davenport Child Pro- tection Act of 2013’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 2013 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 113–47, § 1, Oct. 31, 2013, 127 Stat. 572, provided that: ‘‘This Act [enacting provisions set out as a note under section 3551 of this title] may be cited as the ‘United States Parole Commission Extension Act of 2013’.’’ Pub. L. 113–12, § 1, June 3, 2013, 127 Stat. 448, provided that: ‘‘This Act [amending section 704 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Stolen Valor Act of 2013’.’’ Pub. L. 112–269, § 1, Jan. 14, 2013, 126 Stat. 2442, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [amending section 1831 of this title and enacting provisions listed in a table relating to sentencing guidelines set out as a note under section 994 of Title 28, Judiciary and Judicial Procedure] may be cited as the ‘Foreign and Economic Espionage Pen- alty Enhancement Act of 2012’.’’ Pub. L. 112–258, § 1, Jan. 10, 2013, 126 Stat. 2414, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [amending section 2710 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Video Privacy Protection Act Amendments Act of 2012’.’’ Pub. L. 112–257, § 1, Jan. 10, 2013, 126 Stat. 2413, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [amending section 3056 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Former Presidents Protec- tion Act of 2012’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 2012 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 112–236, § 1, Dec. 28, 2012, 126 Stat. 1627, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [amending section 1832 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Theft of Trade Secrets Clari- fication Act of 2012’.’’ Pub. L. 112–206, § 1, Dec. 7, 2012, 126 Stat. 1490, provided that: ‘‘This Act [amending sections 1514, 2252, 2252A, and 3486 of this title, section 566 of Title 28, Judiciary and Judicial Procedure, and sections 17611, 17612, 17615, and 17617 of Title 42, The Public Health and Welfare, and enacting provisions listed in a table relating to sentencing guidelines set out as a note under section 994 of Title 28] may be cited as the ‘Child Protection Act of 2012’.’’ Pub. L. 112–186, § 1, Oct. 5, 2012, 126 Stat. 1427, provided that: ‘‘This Act [enacting section 670 of this title, amending sections 659, 981, 1952, 1957, 2117, 2314, 2315, 2516, and 3663A of this title, and enacting provisions set out as a note under section 670 of this title and listed in a table relating to sentencing guidelines set out as a note under section 994 of Title 28, Judiciary and Judi- cial Procedure] may be cited as the ‘Strengthening and Focusing Enforcement to Deter Organized Stealing and Enhance Safety Act of 2012’ or the ‘SAFE DOSES Act’.’’ Pub. L. 112–127, § 1, June 5, 2012, 126 Stat. 370, provided that: ‘‘This Act [enacting section 257 of Title 6, Domes- tic Security, amending sections 555, 982, 1956, and 2516 of this title, and enacting provisions set out as a note under section 555 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Bor- der Tunnel Prevention Act of 2012’.’’ Pub. L. 112–98, § 1, Mar. 8, 2012, 126 Stat. 263, provided that: ‘‘This Act [amending section 1752 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Federal Restricted Buildings and Grounds Improvement Act of 2011’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 2011 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 112–44, § 1, Oct. 21, 2011, 125 Stat. 532, provided that: ‘‘This Act [enacting provisions set out as a note under section 3551 of this title] may be cited as the ‘United States Parole Commission Extension Act of 2011’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 2010 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 111–307, § 1, Dec. 14, 2010, 124 Stat. 3282, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [amending section 42 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Asian Carp Prevention and Control Act’.’’ Pub. L. 111–294, § 1, Dec. 9, 2010, 124 Stat. 3177, provided that: ‘‘This Act [amending section 48 of this title and enacting provisions set out as notes under section 48 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Animal Crush Video Prohibition Act of 2010’.’’ Pub. L. 111–272, § 1, Oct. 12, 2010, 124 Stat. 2855, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [amending sections 926B and 926C of this title] may be cited as the ‘Law Enforcement Of- ficers Safety Act Improvements Act of 2010’.’’ Pub. L. 111–225, § 1, Aug. 10, 2010, 124 Stat. 2387, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [amending section 1791 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Cell Phone Contraband Act of 2010’.’’ Pub. L. 111–174, § 1, May 27, 2010, 124 Stat. 1216, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [enacting section 114 of Title 28, Judiciary and Judicial Procedure, amending sections 2519, 3006A, 3154, and 3553 of this title and section 631 of Title 28, and repealing section 114 of Title 28] may be cited as the ‘Federal Judiciary Administrative Im- provements Act of 2010’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 2009 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 111–84, div. E, § 4701, Oct. 28, 2009, 123 Stat. 2835, which set out short title of division E of Pub. L. 111–84, was editorially reclassified and is set out as a note under section 10101 of Title 34, Crime Control and Law Enforcement. Pub. L. 111–79, § 1, Oct. 19, 2009, 123 Stat. 2086, provided that: ‘‘This Act [enacting section 3512 of this title and amending sections 2703, 2711, and 3127 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Foreign Evidence Request Efficiency Act of 2009’.’’ Pub. L. 111–21, § 1, May 20, 2009, 123 Stat. 1617, provided that: ‘‘This Act [enacting section 27 of this title, amending sections 20, 1014, 1031, 1348, 1956, and 1957 of this title and sections 3729 to 3733 of Title 31, Money and Finance, and enacting provisions set out as a note under section 3729 of Title 31] may be cited as the ‘Fraud Enforcement and Recovery Act of 2009’ or ‘FERA’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 2008 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 110–407, § 1, Oct. 13, 2008, 122 Stat. 4296, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [enacting section 2285 of this title and section 70508 of Title 46, Shipping, amending sec- tions 70501, 70502, 70504, and 70505 of Title 46, and enact- ing provisions set out as a note under section 2285 of this title and provisions listed in a table relating to sentencing guidelines set out as a note under section 994 of Title 28, Judiciary and Judicial Procedure] may be cited as the ‘Drug Trafficking Vessel Interdiction Act of 2008’.’’ Pub. L. 110–358, title I, § 101, Oct. 8, 2008, 122 Stat. 4001, provided that: ‘‘This title [amending sections 2251, 2251A, 2252 and 2252A of this title and enacting provi- sions set out as a note under section 2251 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Effective Child Pornography Pros- ecution Act of 2007’.’’ Pub. L. 110–358, title II, § 201, Oct. 8, 2008, 122 Stat. 4003, provided that: ‘‘This title [amending sections 1956, 2252 and 2252A of this title] may be cited as the ‘En- hancing the Effective Prosecution of Child Pornog- raphy Act of 2007’.’’ Pub. L. 110–340, § 1, Oct. 3, 2008, 122 Stat. 3735, provided that: ‘‘This Act [enacting sections 2442 and 3300 of this title, amending sections 1182 and 1227 of Title 8, Aliens and Nationality, and enacting provisions set out as a note under section 1158 of Title 8] may be cited as the ‘Child Soldiers Accountability Act of 2008’.’’ Pub. L. 110–326, title I, § 101, Sept. 26, 2008, 122 Stat. 3560, provided that: ‘‘This title [amending section 3056 of this title and enacting provisions set out as a note under section 3056 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Former Vice President Protection Act of 2008’.’’ Pub. L. 110–326, title II, § 201, Sept. 26, 2008, 122 Stat. 3560, provided that: ‘‘This title [amending sections 1030, 2332b, and 3663 of this title and amending provisions Page 11 TITLE 18—CRIMES AND CRIMINAL PROCEDURE [§ 1 listed in a table relating to sentencing guidelines set out as a note under section 994 of Title 28, Judiciary and Judicial Procedure] may be cited as the ‘Identity Theft Enforcement and Restitution Act of 2008’.’’ Pub. L. 110–179, § 1, Jan. 7, 2008, 121 Stat. 2556, provided that: ‘‘This Act [enacting section 1040 of this title, amending sections 1341 and 1343 of this title, and enact- ing provisions listed in a table relating to sentencing guidelines set out as a note under section 994 of Title 28, Judiciary and Judicial Procedure] may be cited as the ‘Emergency and Disaster Assistance Fraud Penalty Enhancement Act of 2007’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 2007 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 110–151, § 1, Dec. 21, 2007, 121 Stat. 1821, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [amending section 1091 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Genocide Accountability Act of 2007’.’’ Pub. L. 110–22, § 1, May 3, 2007, 121 Stat. 88, provided that: ‘‘This Act [enacting section 49 of this title and amending section 2156 of Title 7, Agriculture] may be cited as the ‘Animal Fighting Prohibition Enforcement Act of 2007’.’’ Pub. L. 109–481, § 1, Jan. 12, 2007, 120 Stat. 3673, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [enacting section 706a of this title] may be cited as the ‘Geneva Distinctive Emblems Protection Act of 2006’.’’ Pub. L. 109–476, § 1, Jan. 12, 2007, 120 Stat. 3568, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [enacting section 1039 of this title and provisions set out as a note under section 1039 of this title and amending provisions listed in a table re- lating to sentencing guidelines set out as a note under section 994 of Title 28, Judiciary and Judicial Proce- dure] may be cited as the ‘Telephone Records and Pri- vacy Protection Act of 2006’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 2006 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 109–437, § 1, Dec. 20, 2006, 120 Stat. 3266, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [amending section 704 of this title and enacting provisions set out as a note under section 704 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Stolen Valor Act of 2005’.’’ Pub. L. 109–374, § 1, Nov. 27, 2006, 120 Stat. 2652, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [amending section 43 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act’.’’ Pub. L. 109–181, § 1(a)(1), Mar. 16, 2006, 120 Stat. 285, provided that: ‘‘This section [amending section 2320 of this title, enacting provisions set out as a note under section 2320 of this title, and enacting provisions listed in a table relating to sentencing guidelines set out as a note under section 994 of Title 28, Judiciary and Judi- cial Procedure] may be cited as the ‘Stop Counter- feiting in Manufactured Goods Act’.’’ Pub. L. 109–181, § 2(a), Mar. 16, 2006, 120 Stat. 288, pro- vided that: ‘‘This section [amending sections 2318, 2319A, and 2320 of this title and section 1101 of Title 17, Copyrights] may be cited as the ‘Protecting American Goods and Services Act of 2005’.’’ Pub. L. 109–178, § 1, Mar. 9, 2006, 120 Stat. 278, provided that: ‘‘This Act [amending section 2709 of this title, section 3414 of Title 12, Banks and Banking, sections 1681u and 1681v of Title 15, Commerce and Trade, and sections 436 and 1861 of Title 50, War and National De- fense, and enacting provisions set out as a note under section 3414 of Title 12] may be cited as the ‘USA PA- TRIOT Act Additional Reauthorizing Amendments Act of 2006’.’’ Pub. L. 109–177, § 1(a), Mar. 9, 2006, 120 Stat. 192, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [see Tables for classification] may be cited as the ‘USA PATRIOT Improvement and Reauthorization Act of 2005’.’’ Pub. L. 109–177, title II, § 201, Mar. 9, 2006, 120 Stat. 230, provided that: ‘‘This title [enacting section 3599 of this title, amending section 3583 of this title and sec- tion 848 of Title 21, Food and Drugs, and enacting provi- sions set out as notes under section 46502 of Title 49, Transportation] may be cited as the ‘Terrorist Death Penalty Enhancement Act of 2005’.’’ Pub. L. 109–177, title III, § 301, Mar. 9, 2006, 120 Stat. 233, provided that: ‘‘This title [see Tables for classifica- tion] may be cited as the ‘Reducing Crime and Ter- rorism at America’s Seaports Act of 2005’.’’ Pub. L. 109–177, title IV, § 401, Mar. 9, 2006, 120 Stat. 243, provided that: ‘‘This title [see Tables for classifica- tion] may be cited as the ‘Combating Terrorism Fi- nancing Act of 2005’.’’ Pub. L. 109–177, title VI, § 601, Mar. 9, 2006, 120 Stat. 251, provided that: ‘‘This title [see Tables for classifica- tion] may be cited as the ‘Secret Service Authorization and Technical Modification Act of 2005’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 2004 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 108–458, title VI, § 6701, Dec. 17, 2004, 118 Stat. 3764, provided that: ‘‘This subtitle [subtitle H (§§ 6701–6704) of title VI of Pub. L. 108–458, enacting sec- tion 1038 of this title, amending sections 1001, 1505, and 1958 of this title, and enacting provisions listed in a table relating to sentencing guidelines set out as a note under section 994 of Title 28, Judiciary and Judicial Procedure] may be cited as the ‘Stop Terrorist and Military Hoaxes Act of 2004’.’’ Pub. L. 108–458, title VI, § 6801, Dec. 17, 2004, 118 Stat. 3766, provided that: ‘‘This subtitle [subtitle I (§§ 6801–6803) of title VI of Pub. L. 108–458, enacting sec- tion 832 of this title, amending sections 175b, 1961, 2332a, and 2332b of this title and sections 2077 and 2122 of Title 42, The Public Health and Welfare, and enacting provi- sions set out as a note under section 175b of this title] may be cited as the ‘Weapons of Mass Destruction Pro- hibition Improvement Act of 2004’.’’ Pub. L. 108–458, title VI, § 6901, Dec. 17, 2004, 118 Stat. 3769, provided that: ‘‘This subtitle [subtitle J (§§ 6901–6911) of title VI of Pub. L. 108–458, enacting sec- tions 175c, 2332g, and 2332h of this title, amending sec- tions 1956, 2332b, and 2516 of this title, section 2778 of Title 22, Foreign Relations and Intercourse, and sec- tions 2122 and 2272 of Title 42, The Public Health and Welfare, and enacting provisions set out as a note under section 175c of this title] may be cited as the ‘Prevention of Terrorist Access to Destructive Weapons Act of 2004’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 2003 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 108–21, § 1(a), Apr. 30, 2003, 117 Stat. 650, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [see Tables for classification] may be cited as the ‘Prosecutorial Remedies and Other Tools to end the Exploitation of Children Today Act of 2003’ or ‘PROTECT Act’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 2002 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 107–273, div. B, title IV, § 4001, Nov. 2, 2002, 116 Stat. 1806, provided that: ‘‘This title [see Tables for classification] may be cited as the ‘Criminal Law Tech- nical Amendments Act of 2002’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 2001 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 107–56, § 1(a), Oct. 26, 2001, 115 Stat. 272, as amended by Pub. L. 109–177, title I, § 101(b), Mar. 9, 2006, 120 Stat. 194, provided that: ‘‘This Act [see Tables for classification] may be cited as the ‘Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001’ or the ‘USA PATRIOT Act’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 1998 AMENDMENTS Pub. L. 105–314, § 1(a), Oct. 30, 1998, 112 Stat. 2974, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [see Tables for classification] may be cited as the ‘Protection of Children From Sex- ual Predators Act of 1998’.’’ Pub. L. 105–184, § 1, June 23, 1998, 112 Stat. 520, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [amending sections 709, 982, 2326, 2327, and 2703 of this title and enacting provisions listed in a table relating to sentencing guidelines set out as a note under section 994 of Title 28, Judiciary and Judi- cial Procedure] may be cited as the ‘Telemarketing Fraud Prevention Act of 1998’.’’ Page 12 TITLE 18—CRIMES AND CRIMINAL PROCEDURE § 2 SHORT TITLE OF 1996 AMENDMENTS Pub. L. 104–294, § 1, Oct. 11, 1996, 110 Stat. 3488, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [see Tables for classification] may be cited as the ‘Economic Espionage Act of 1996’.’’ Pub. L. 104–132, § 1, Apr. 24, 1996, 110 Stat. 1214, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [see Tables for classification] may be cited as the ‘Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 1994 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 103–322, title X, § 100001, Sept. 13, 1994, 108 Stat. 1996, provided that: ‘‘This title [amending section 13 of this title and section 3751 of Title 42, The Public Health and Welfare] may be cited as the ‘Drunk Driving Child Protection Act of 1994’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 1990 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 101–647, § 1, Nov. 29, 1990, 104 Stat. 4789, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [see Tables for classification] may be cited as the ‘Crime Control Act of 1990’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 1988 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 100–690, title VII, § 7011, Nov. 18, 1988, 102 Stat. 4395, provided that: ‘‘This subtitle [subtitle B (§§ 7011–7096) of title VII of Pub. L. 100–690, see Tables for classification] may be cited as the ‘Minor and Tech- nical Criminal Law Amendments Act of 1988’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 1987 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 100–185, § 1, Dec. 11, 1987, 101 Stat. 1279, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [enacting section 19 of this title, amending sections 18, 3013, 3559, 3571, 3572, 3573, 3611, 3612, and 3663 of this title and section 604 of Title 28, Ju- diciary and Judicial Procedure, and enacting provisions set out as notes under section 3611 of this title] may be cited as the ‘Criminal Fine Improvements Act of 1987’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 1986 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 99–646, § 1, Nov. 10, 1986, 100 Stat. 3592, pro- vided that: ‘‘This Act [see Tables for classification] may be cited as the ‘Criminal Law and Procedure Tech- nical Amendments Act of 1986’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 1984 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 98–473, title II, § 200, Oct. 12, 1984, 98 Stat. 1976, provided that: ‘‘This title [see Tables for classification] may be cited as the ‘Comprehensive Crime Control Act of 1984’.’’ SHORT TITLE OF 1974 AMENDMENT Pub. L. 93–412, § 1, Sept. 3, 1974, 88 Stat. 1089, provided: ‘‘That this Act [amending section 3006A of this title and enacting provisions set out as a note under section 3006A of this title] may be cited as the ‘District of Co- lumbia Criminal Justice Act’.’’ SEVERABILITY Pub. L. 108–21, § 2, Apr. 30, 2003, 117 Stat. 651, provided that: ‘‘If any provision of this Act [see Tables for clas- sification], or the application of such provision to any person or circumstance, is held invalid, the remainder of this Act, and the application of such provision to other persons not similarly situated or to other cir- cumstances, shall not be affected by such invalida- tion.’’ Pub. L. 107–56, § 2, Oct. 26, 2001, 115 Stat. 275, provided that: ‘‘Any provision of this Act [see Short Title of 2001 Amendment note above] held to be invalid or unen- forceable by its terms, or as applied to any person or circumstance, shall be construed so as to give it the maximum effect permitted by law, unless such holding shall be one of utter invalidity or unenforceability, in which event such provision shall be deemed severable from this Act and shall not affect the remainder there- of or the application of such provision to other persons not similarly situated or to other, dissimilar cir- cumstances.’’ Pub. L. 104–132, title IX, § 904, Apr. 24, 1996, 110 Stat. 1319, provided that: ‘‘If any provision of this Act [see Short Title of 1996 Amendments note above], an amend- ment made by this Act, or the application of such pro- vision or amendment to any person or circumstance is held to be unconstitutional, the remainder of this Act, the amendments made by this Act, and the application of the provisions of such to any person or circumstance shall not be affected thereby.’’ § 2. Principals (a) Whoever commits an offense against the United States or aids, abets, counsels, com- mands, induces or procures its commission, is punishable as a principal. (b) Whoever willfully causes an act to be done which if directly performed by him or another would be an offense against the United States, is punishable as a principal. (June 25, 1948, ch. 645, 62 Stat. 684; Oct. 31, 1951, ch. 655, § 17b, 65 Stat. 717.) HISTORICAL AND REVISION NOTES Based on title 18, U.S.C., 1940 ed., § 550 (Mar. 4, 1909, ch. 321, § 332, 35 Stat. 1152). Section 2(a) comprises section 550 of title 18, U.S.C., 1940 ed., without change except in minor matters of phraseology. Section 2(b) is added to permit the deletion from many sections throughout the revision of such phrases as ‘‘causes or procures’’. The section as revised makes clear the legislative in- tent to punish as a principal not only one who directly commits an offense and one who ‘‘aids, abets, counsels, commands, induces or procures’’ another to commit an offense, but also anyone who causes the doing of an act which if done by him directly would render him guilty of an offense against the United States. It removes all doubt that one who puts in motion or assists in the illegal enterprise but causes the commis- sion of an indispensable element of the offense by an in- nocent agent or instrumentality, is guilty as a prin- cipal even though he intentionally refrained from the direct act constituting the completed offense. This accords with the following decisions: Rothenburg v. United States, 1918, 38 S. Ct. 18, 245 U.S. 480, 62 L. Ed. 414, and United States v. Hodorowicz, C. C. A. Ill. 1939, 105 F. 2d 218, certiorari denied, 60 S. Ct. 108, 308 U.S. 584, 84 L. Ed. 489. United States v. Giles, 1937, 57 S. Ct. 340, 300 U.S. 41, 81 L. Ed. 493, rehearing denied, 57 S. Ct. 505, 300 U.S. 687, 81 L. Ed. 888. Editorial Notes AMENDMENTS 1951—Subsec. (a). Act Oct. 31, 1951, inserted ‘‘punish- able as’’. Subsec. (b). Act Oct. 31, 1951, inserted ‘‘willfully’’ be- fore ‘‘causes’’, and ‘‘or another’’ after ‘‘him’’, and sub- stituted ‘‘is punishable as a principal’’ for ‘‘is also a principal and punishable as such’’. § 3. Accessory after the fact Whoever, knowing that an offense against the United States has been committed, receives, re- lieves, comforts or assists the offender in order to hinder or prevent his apprehension, trial or punishment, is an accessory after the fact. Except as otherwise expressly provided by any Act of Congress, an accessory after the fact shall be imprisoned not more than one-half the maximum term of imprisonment or (notwith- standing section 3571) fined not more than one- half the maximum fine prescribed for the pun- ishment of the principal, or both; or if the prin-